LUFS (Loudness Units Full Scale) and LKFS (Loudness K-weighted Full Scale) are units used to measure the loudness of sound. They serve as international standards to quantify the relative loudness of audio, based on how humans perceive it. LUFS/LKFS is utilized to measure the average loudness across a variety of audio content like music, films, and broadcasts, applying a K-weighted filter in the process.
Loudness refers to the perceived volume of sound as heard by the human ear. It may differ from the actual sound pressure level (dBSPL), which objectively quantifies sound intensity.
In audio systems, the reference level generally refers to the standard signal level defined by international standards. This serves to maintain compatibility between different audio equipment and systems, as well as to secure headroom and prevent distortion in audio processing.
The Nominal Level represents the optimal operating level of a signal in audio systems or equipment. This value indicates at what level the signal should be appropriately processed or operated. The Nominal Level is a critical concept for maintaining compatibility and consistency between different devices and components. It is established by taking various factors such as Noise Floor, Dynamic Range, and Clipping into consideration.
Headroom is a concept used in audio equipment and systems, referring to the buffer space between the nominal operating level (Nominal Level) and the maximum level (Maximum Level). This buffer space serves to preserve the dynamic range of the signal and prevent distortion or clipping.
Crest factor, also known as peak-to-RMS ratio, represents the ratio between the Peak and RMS values in a waveform. In other words, the crest factor gives a relative indication of the peak value within a waveform. A crest factor of 1 signifies a waveform without peaks, such as DC or square waveforms. A higher crest factor means that the waveform has relatively larger peaks. The crest factor is calculated as the Peak divided by the RMS value.
In digital audio, even if the sample data is below the Peak value, the actual analog waveform can exceed the Peak value when played back. This phenomenon arises from the characteristics of the digital signal’s quantization stage and the functioning of the D/A converter. To estimate the maximum amplitude when the sample data is converted into an actual analog waveform, True Peak values are utilized.
The term “Peak” refers to the maximum amplitude of a signal, representing the highest value in a waveform. The peak indicates the instantaneous size of the signal and does not account for variations over time or average values. Therefore, the peak value can differ significantly from the actual perceived volume.
Typical analog signals rapidly fluctuate between positive and negative values. If one simply measures the amplitude of such a signal, the value would constantly hover around zero. This is because the positive and negative portions of the signal cancel each other out. RMS addresses this issue as an effective measurement method.
Microphone level signals are generally transmitted as balanced signals, and their output impedance is usually below 300 ohms. This allows microphone level signals to be transmitted over longer distances compared to instrument level signals, which have high impedance outputs.